call 210-352-5119 for Hawkes Outdoors a camping and overland community. We provide great customer service, and camping supplies of all kinds. For the purposes of outdoor research.
EDUCATION
Degree In Biologic Science, Texas A&M University College Station
RESEARCH INTERESTS
Researching the use of outdoor activities on the human physical conditions. How sunlight, fresh air, excercise, and environment play a role in the health, and mental stability of Humans. With the use of our equipment for camping, fishing, hunting, hiking, biking, caving, and more. Hawkes Outdoor.
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Scopus Publications
Scopus Publications
A systematic review comparing the performance of alternative blackfly (Simulium) trapping methods against the standard human landing catch (HLC) for onchocerciasis surveillance Irene Kyomuhangi, Amro Mustafa, Frances M. Hawkes Plos Neglected Tropical Diseases, 2026 Despite decades of control efforts, onchocerciasis remains a major public health concern in Africa, the Americas, and Yemen. Human Landing Catch (HLC) is the primary method for collecting blackflies and is central to surveillance. However, HLC raises ethical concerns due to collectors’ exposure to painful and potentially infectious bites and faces operational challenges in areas of very low or high transmission. Consequently, several alternative blackfly trapping methods have been investigated, but no comprehensive synthesis comparing their effectiveness against standard HLC across studies has been conducted. Therefore, we performed a systematic review comparing the performance of alternative blackfly traps with standard HLC. A systematic review (PROSPERO registration number: CRD420261294895) of literature published in Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science up to December 2025 was supplemented by an expert-provided reference list. From 166 records, 62 were screened, and 13 studies (comprising 79 comparisons with standard HLC) met inclusion criteria. Alternative traps included light traps, Bellec traps, tent traps baited with humans or cows, Esperanza Window Traps, Host Decoy Traps, electric nets, and modified HLC. Most comparisons (75.9%) found alternative traps to be less effective than standard HLC, with statistical analyses often supporting these differences, although nearly half lacked formal significance testing. Variation in study design—including trap placement, rotation, and trapping duration—and inconsistent reporting of key variables such as season, habitat, and species limited direct comparisons. Some studies indicated that increasing trap density or deployment duration of Esperanza Window Traps could improve effectiveness. While HLC remains the most effective method, its ethical and operational limitations highlight the need for reliable alternatives. Most existing traps underperform relative to HLC, but modifications based on deeper understanding of blackfly behaviour and ecology could improve performance. Future research should focus on standardizing trap evaluation methods, exploring species-specific behaviours, and assessing scalability to develop ethical, scalable tools for onchocerciasis surveillance.
Comparison of four outdoor trapping methods as alternatives to human landing catch for Anopheles surveillance Suntorn Pimnon, Ratchadawan Ngoen-Klan, Anchana Sumarnrote, Monthathip Kongmee, Frances M Hawkes, Watthanasak Lertlumnaphakul, Manop Saeung, Theeraphap Chareonviriyaphap Journal of Medical Entomology, 2026 Vector surveillance is a critical component of malaria control, particularly with the increasing importance of outdoor transmission. This study evaluated the performance of four outdoor trapping methods, the human landing catch (HLC), human double net trap (HDNT), human decoy trap (HDT), and UV light trap (UVLT), as potential alternatives to the HLC, which raises ethical concerns due to pathogen exposure risk for human collectors. Fieldwork was conducted over 48 nights across three seasons (cool-dry, hot-dry, and rainy) at a malaria-endemic area in Kanchanaburi Province, Thailand. A total of 3,734 mosquitoes were collected, of which 1,266 (33.90%) were identified as Anopheles species, including the primary malaria vectors: Anopheles baimaii, Anopheles dirus, Anopheles minimus, Anopheles aconitus, and Anopheles sawadwongporni. The results showed that HLC collected the highest number of mosquitoes overall. However, HDNT was the most effective method to capture Anopheles (538; 42.50%), compared with UVLT (359, 28.36%), HLC (340, 26.85%), and HDT (29, 2.29%). Due to temporal dynamics of mosquitoes, HDNT was particularly effective for collecting An. harrisoni and An. sawadwongporni across different seasons. However, HLC remained superior for capturing An. dirus s.l. The results suggest that HDNT is a promising and safer alternative than HLC for outdoor surveillance of Anopheles mosquitoes, while the use of multiple or seasonally tailored methods could further enhance surveillance strategies.
Crop: The Black Box of Mosquito Vector Fitness Ainhoa Rodriguez-Pereira, Frances M. Hawkes, S. Noushin Emami Insects, 2026 In mosquitoes, digestion involves the foregut (including the crop), midgut, and hindgut, with the midgut and crop playing important roles in processing sugar and blood meals. The well-studied midgut is a known major pathogen entry point; however, the less-explored crop may affect vector fitness and immunity. This review provides an overview of the anatomy and function of the crop, before drawing together the current state of knowledge of (I) the crop’s role in digestion, (II) its immune function, and (III) the importance of the crop microbiome and its potential role in mosquito fitness. After decades of chemical control, vector management must move beyond immediate disease prevention toward a global approach that considers mosquito biology and the crop’s diverse roles. This may make it a suitable target for new innovations by providing insights into detoxification mechanisms, microbiome-mediated functions, and their potential combined effects on vectorial capacity. Future research is needed to better understand crop function.
Climate change adapted rice production: does the system of rice intensification impact malaria vector ecology? Harrison Hardy, Richard J. Hopkins, Ladslaus Mnyone, Frances M. Hawkes Parasites and Vectors, 2025 The proliferation of malaria vectors from irrigated rice crop systems has long been known, though the relationship between rice cultivation and malaria transmission is historically complex. Despite this, contemporary research reveals an association between enhanced malaria vector densities, originating from rice fields, and intensified malaria transmission in rice-associated communities is now occurring. In the wake of the ever-increasing pressures of anthropogenic climate change and a desire to increase rice production across the continent of Africa, alternative rice cultivation practices are being employed. One such alternative practice is the System of Rice Intensification (SRI), which although agronomically contentious is utilised in an attempt to enhance rice yields whilst reducing agricultural inputs, including water. SRI fundamentally alters the rice growing environment and may therefore have significant impacts on the ecology of malaria vector species. As a result, there may be important consequences for local malaria transmission dynamics. The adoption of SRI across Africa is increasing and is likely to do so further in the wake of the pressures of climate change. In this review, we critically discuss the possible impacts of SRI practice on the bionomics of the dominant malaria vector species of Africa. Graphical Abstract Created in BioRender. Hardy, H. (2025) https://BioRender.com/mo3g1wr
Identifying mosquito plant hosts from ingested nectar secondary metabolites Amanda N. Cooper, Louise Malmgren, Frances M. Hawkes, Iain W. Farrell, Domonbabele F. d. S. Hien, Richard J. Hopkins, Thierry Lefèvre, Philip C. Stevenson Scientific Reports, 2025 Establishing how plants contribute food and refuge to insects can be challenging for small species that are difficult to observe in their natural habitat, such as disease vectoring mosquitoes. Currently indirect methods of plant-host identification rely on DNA sequencing of ingested plant material but are often unsuccessful for small insects that feed primarily on plant sugars or have little contact with plant cells. Here we developed an innovative approach to determine species-specific phytophagy by detecting taxon-specific plant secondary metabolites (PSMs) in nectar. Two mosquito species were exposed to three PSMs, each present in the nectar of a known plant host, firstly from dosed sucrose solutions and secondly from flowers. Both experiments yielded high rates of PSM detection in mosquitoes using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). PSMs were consistently detected in mosquitoes up to 8 h post-ingestion. In experiments consisting of two or three plant species, multiple PSMs from different host plants could be detected. These positive results demonstrate that PSMs could be useful indicators of insect plant-hosts selection in the wild. With expanded knowledge of nectar-based PSMs across a landscape, improved knowledge of plant-host relationships could be achieved where direct observations in their natural habitat are lacking. Increasing understanding of vector insect ecology will have an important role in tackling vector-borne disease.
Using non-insecticidal traps indoors can complement insecticide-treated nets to target insecticide-resistant malaria vectors Romaric Akoton, Pierre Marie Sovegnon, Oswald Y. Djihinto, Adandé A. Medjigbodo, Romuald Agonhossou, Ayola Akim Adegnika, Gabriella Gibson, Rousseau Djouaka, Frances M. Hawkes, Luc S. Djogbénou Parasites and Vectors, 2025 Background Insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) provide protection against malaria vectors through their insecticidal action and as a physical barrier. However, insecticide resistance in malaria vectors has diminished their efficacy, threatening future malaria control. To reinforce ITNs’ effectiveness, evaluating non-insecticide-based tools in an integrated control approach is worthwhile. In the present study, a mosquito collection technique, the Host Decoy Trap (HDT), was coupled with standard ITNs as a complementary intervention, and its effectiveness against insecticide-resistant Anopheles gambiae s.l. was assessed in experimental huts. Methods An HDT combined with either permethrin or deltamethrin-treated nets was tested against field-collected An. gambiae mosquitoes from Za-Kpota (Benin Republic) in experimental hut trials following WHO Phase II guidelines. Effectiveness was assessed in terms of mosquito mortality, blood feeding and exophily rates. Prior to hut trials, an insecticide susceptibility test was performed on field-collected An. gambiae s.l. mosquitoes to screen for pyrethroid resistance. Results A significantly higher mortality rate was observed against both susceptible and field-collected An. gambiae s.l. mosquitoes when ITNs were used with HDT (ranging from 80.18 to 99.78%) compared to alone (2.44–100%). The combined use of treated nets with HDT resulted in a lower rate (ranging from 0 to 10.83%) of blood feeding compared to the treated nets alone (ranging from 0 to 16.93%). When treated nets were hung next to the HDT, they significantly limited the number of insecticide-resistant mosquitoes that exited experimental huts compared to the nets alone. Conclusions The use of HDT alongside ITNs has been demonstrated to significantly reduce the likelihood of vector-host contact by insecticide-resistant An. gambiae. A combination of HDT and treated nets reduced the number of live An. gambiae mosquitoes as well as the blood-feeding rate. Furthermore, it reduced the number of mosquitoes likely to leave the huts and enter the natural environment. Altogether, our findings highlight the potential of integrated approaches combining non-insecticidal trapping devices with ITNs when designing future integrated vector control strategies.
Lethal and sublethal impacts of membrane-fed ivermectin are concentration dependent in Anopheles coluzzii Monique A. M. Shepherd-Gorringe, Marie W. Pettit, Frances M. Hawkes Parasites and Vectors, 2024 Background Ivermectin is a well-tolerated anthelminthic drug with wide clinical and veterinary applications. It also has lethal and sublethal effects on mosquitoes. Mass drug administration with ivermectin has therefore been suggested as an innovative vector control tool in efforts to curb emerging insecticide resistance and reduce residual malaria transition. To support assessments of the feasibility and efficacy of current and future formulations of ivermectin for vector control, we sought to establish the relationship between ivermectin concentration and its lethal and sublethal impacts in a primary malaria vector. Methods The in vitro effects of ivermectin on daily mortality and fecundity, measured by egg production, were assessed up to 14 days post-blood feed in a laboratory colony of Anopheles coluzzii. Mosquitoes were fed ivermectin in blood meals delivered by membrane feeding at one of six concentrations: 0 ng/ml (control), 10 ng/ml, 15 ng/ml, 25 ng/ml, 50 ng/ml, 75 ng/ml, and 100 ng/ml. Results Ivermectin had a significant effect on mosquito survival in a concentration-dependent manner. The LC50 at 7 days was 19.7 ng/ml. The time to median mortality at ≥ 50 ng/ml was ≤ 4 days, compared to 9.6 days for control, and 6.3–7.6 days for ivermectin concentrations between 10 and 25 ng/ml. Fecundity was also affected; no oviposition was observed in surviving females from the two highest concentration treatment groups. While females exposed to 10 to 50 ng/ml of ivermectin did oviposit, significantly fewer did so in the 50 ng/ml treatment group compared to the control, and they also produced significantly fewer eggs. Conclusions Our results showed ivermectin reduced mosquito survival in a concentration-dependent manner and at ≥ 50 ng/ml significantly reduced fecundity in An. coluzzii. Results indicate that levels of ivermectin found in human blood following ingestion of a single 150–200 μg/kg dose would be sufficient to achieve 50% mortality across 7 days; however, fecundity in survivors is unlikely to be affected. At higher doses, a substantial impact on both survival and fecundity is likely. Treating human populations with ivermectin could be used as a supplementary malaria vector control method to kill mosquito populations and supress their reproduction; however strategies to safely maintain mosquitocidal blood levels of ivermectin against all Anopheles species require development. Graphical Abstract
Improving onchocerciasis elimination surveillance: trials of odour baited Esperanza Window Traps to collect black fly vectors and real-time qPCR detection of Onchocerca volvulus in black fly pools Monsuru A. Adeleke, Kenneth N. Opara, Hayward B. Mafuyai, Bertram Ekejiuba Bright Nwoke, Olabanji A. Surakat, Sunday B. Akinde, Murphy Nwoke, Friday M. Chikezie, Clement A. Yaro, Ugagu Mmaduabuchi, Michael Igbe, Emeka Makata, Fatai Oyediran, Chukwuma Anyaike, Joseph Tongjura, Frances Hawkes, Zahra O. Iwalewa Parasites and Vectors, 2024 Background Entomological data for onchocerciasis surveillance relies on sampling black flies through human landing collectors in the field and laboratory testing of the flies for infection using pooled screening O-150 PCR-ELISA assay. Both techniques require improvements. This study aimed to optimize the Esperanza Window Trap (EWT) for black fly collection. We tested alternative carbon dioxide (CO2) mimics to attract black flies to the traps. Additionally, we evaluated new quantitative PCR (qPCR) methods that target mitochondrial DNA markers and have been proposed to enhance the sensitivity and specificity for detecting Onchocerca volvulus infections in blackflies. Methods Traps baited with low, medium and high release rates of either 2-butanone or cyclopentanone as CO2 mimics were field tested against traps baited with organically generated CO2 in four ecological zones in Nigeria: Guinea savannah, derived savannah, rainforest and montane forest. The performance of EWTs baited with CO2 or in combination with 2-butanone (low release) were subsequently evaluated against the human landing collection (HLC). Trap scaling was also pilot tested by comparing two EWTs to a single HLC team. Collected black flies were used to test detection of O. volvulus in black flies using Ov ND5 real-time PCR (qPCR) compared to the conventional pool screening O-150 PCR. Results EWTs baited with 2-butanone caught similar numbers of black flies (Simulium damnosum s.l.) to those baited with CO2, while cyclopentanone collected significantly fewer flies in all locations. The low release of 2-butanone was the most effective overall, although HLCs collected higher numbers of black flies than EWT baited with CO2 either singly or in combination with low-release 2-butanone. The combination of two EWTs baited with CO2 and deployed 100 m apart from each other collected similar numbers of flies as one HLC. More black fly pools were positive for O. volvulus by Ov ND5 qPCR compared with O-150 PCR in derived savannah (31.15 vs. 15.57%), montane forest (11.54 vs. 0%) and rainforest (23.08 vs. 2.56%), with only one positive pool in Guinea savannah detected by both methods. Conclusions The 2-butanone has potential to be used in xenomonitoring as a standardized replacement for organically generated CO2. Ov ND5 qPCR detected more positive pools than O-150 PCR. The positive pools found in foci hitherto considered to have interrupted/eliminated onchocerciasis highlight the need for more sensitive and specific methods that support programmatic assessments to identify and combat recrudescence. Graphical Abstract
Protocol for rearing and using mosquitoes for flight path tracking and behavioral characterization in wind tunnel bioassays Manuela Carnaghi, Federico Mandelli, Lionel Feugère, Jillian Joiner, Steven R. Belmain, Richard J. Hopkins, Frances M. Hawkes STAR Protocols, 2024 Mosquito behavioral assays are an important component in vector research and control tool development. Here, we present a protocol for rearing Anopheles mosquitoes, performing host-seeking behavioral bioassays, and collecting 3D flight tracks in a large wind tunnel. We describe steps for setting up host-seeking landing assays, both as a non-choice and as a dual-choice assay, and analyzing flight tracks. This protocol can be applied in the research of several behavioral traits, including nectar seeking, resting, mating, and oviposition behavior. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Carnaghi et al. 1 • Protocol for rearing Anopheles mosquitoes to be used in behavioral assays • Protocol for behavioral assays in a wind tunnel coupled with a 3D tracking system • Detailed workflow instructions for Anopheles host-seeking behavioral studies • Adaptable for other behavioral traits and other mosquito species Publisher’s note: Undertaking any experimental protocol requires adherence to local institutional guidelines for laboratory safety and ethics. Mosquito behavioral assays are an important component in vector research and control tool development. Here, we present a protocol for rearing Anopheles mosquitoes, performing host-seeking behavioral bioassays, and collecting 3D flight tracks in a large wind tunnel. We describe steps for setting up host-seeking landing assays, both as a non-choice and as a dual-choice assay, and analyzing flight tracks. This protocol can be applied in the research of several behavioral traits, including nectar seeking, resting, mating, and oviposition behavior.
Short- and Long-Range Dispersal by Members of the Simulium damnosum Complex (Diptera: Simuliidae), Vectors of Onchocerciasis: A Review Robert A. Cheke, Frances M. Hawkes, Manuela Carnaghi Insects, 2024 Blackfly members of the Simulium damnosum complex are major vectors of the parasite that causes onchocerciasis in Africa and Yemen, with other vector species involved in a few localized areas of Africa and in the Neotropics. Although the life cycle of these blackflies is linked to fast-flowing rivers, they can travel long distances (up to at least 500 km), calling into question how transmission zones are defined. Knowledge of the short- and long-range dispersal of these vectors could inform where control interventions and monitoring are necessary if targets for onchocerciasis elimination are to be met. Yet, research on blackfly dispersal has been limited and fragmented over the last 70 years. Here, we review the literature on the dispersal of onchocerciasis vectors, and we show the need for further research to establish how far larvae can travel downstream; the extent to which adults invade transmission zones; and whether adults migrate in a series of successive short movements or in single long-distance shifts, or use both methods.
Aedes aegypti oviposition-sites choice under semi-field conditions Mariana R. David, Rafael Maciel‐de‐Freitas, Martha T. Petersen, Daniel Bray, Frances M. Hawkes, G. Mandela Fernández‐Grandon, Stephen Young, Gabriella Gibson, Richard J. Hopkins Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 2023
