The ecological niche and population history shape mosquito population genetics on a group of three Caribbean islands Pepijn Helleman, Maarten Schrama, Krijn B. Trimbos, Marieta A. H. Braks, Francis Schaffner, Arjan Stroo, Roel M. Wouters, Jordy G. van der Beek Parasites and Vectors, 2025 Background While studies on mosquito population genetics have primarily focused on medically relevant species, fewer have examined the genetic population structure of mosquitoes from a diverse range of species within a single geographical area. The limited comparison between native and non-native species, as well as ecologically divergent species from the same region, hampers our ability to generalise previously described patterns in mosquito population genetics. This study uses the mosquito fauna of the Caribbean islands of Aruba, Curaçao and Bonaire as a case study to explore population genetic variation among both native and non-native mosquito species, as well as among native species occupying different ecological niches. We examine how genetic patterns relate to their population history and species-specific ecologies. Methods Mitochondrial COII sequences were obtained from 258 mosquito specimens belonging to six species, occurring on all three islands. Sequences were used in haplotype network analysis to assess the genetic variation between mosquito populations of each of the six ecologically diverse species, which vary in both their population history and ecological niche. Results Both the genetic diversity and population genetic structure were found to differ strongly between sets of species, leading to a subdivision into three species groups: (1) non-native species with low genetic diversity across all three investigated islands, (2) locally native species with high genetic diversity and closely related haplotypes occurring on different islands and (3) locally native species with high genetic diversity and locally restricted haplotypes. Conclusions Our results show that the population genetics of non-native and native species strongly differ, likely as a result of population history. Furthermore, the results suggest that mosquito species sharing the same area may display distinct population genetic structure, likely related to differences in their ecology and dispersal capacity. We suggest that addressing a broader range of species within a single area will benefit future research on mosquito population genetics to place observed patterns into a broader historical, ecological and evolutionary context. Graphical Abstract
The differentiating power of mitochondrial genes: complete mitogenome sequences of 27 mosquito species present in Europe J.G. van der Beek, A. Ibáñez-Justicia, J.C. Biesmeijer, E. Lizarazo-Forero, A. Stroo, B.T.L.H. van de Vossenberg, T. Warbroek, M. Schrama Journal of the European Mosquito Control Association, 2025 The rapid advancement of genomic tools has revolutionised entomological research, offering new insights into insect evolution, population dynamics, and species identification. Much in line with most other insects, mitochondrial DNA has emerged as a key resource in mosquito studies, with the partial cox1 (cytochrome oxidase c subunit 1, oftentimes referred to as COI) gene commonly used for species identification. However, cox1 ’s limitations in resolving cryptic and sibling species and its challenges in metabarcoding applications underscore the need to explore alternative genetic markers. This study addresses the lack of comprehensive reference mitogenomes for mosquitoes present in Europe, by sequencing and assembling 82 mitochondrial genomes from 27 Northwest European species including 3 invasive Aedes species. Two-thirds of the species’ mitogenomes were sequenced for the first time. Our results highlight a notable variability of mitochondrial genes, highlighting the potential for development of genetic markers to improve taxonomic resolution. Notably, the nad6 and nad2 genes demonstrated more variability compared to cox1 , exhibiting higher nucleotide diversity, more variable base pairs and greater between-species variability. These genes are flanked by conserved tRNA genes, providing ideal primer sites and enabling efficient amplification for degraded or pooled samples. As such, this study presents a foundation for improved molecular identification techniques, enhancing mosquito monitoring and research across Europe by providing mitogenome sequences of 26% of the 102 European mosquito species. It also highlights the need to sequence the mitogenomes of a much larger fraction of the mosquito species community. By expanding the availability of mitogenomic data, researchers can explore novel genetic markers to improve biomonitoring and address current challenges in species identification.
Landscape level associations between birds, mosquitoes and microclimates: possible consequences for disease transmission? Louie Krol, Laure Remmerswaal, Marvin Groen, Jordy G. van der Beek, Reina S. Sikkema, Martha Dellar, Peter M. van Bodegom, Gertjan W. Geerling, Maarten Schrama Parasites and Vectors, 2024 Background Mosquito-borne diseases are on the rise. While climatic factors have been linked to disease occurrences, they do not explain the non-random spatial distribution in disease outbreaks. Landscape-related factors, such as vegetation structure, likely play a crucial but hitherto unquantified role. Methods We explored how three critically important factors that are associated with mosquito-borne disease outbreaks: microclimate, mosquito abundance and bird communities, vary at the landscape scale. We compared the co-occurrence of these three factors in two contrasting habitat types (forest versus grassland) across five rural locations in the central part of the Netherlands between June and September 2021. Results Our results show that forest patches provide a more sheltered microclimate, and a higher overall abundance of birds. When accounting for differences in landscape characteristics, we also observed that the number of mosquitoes was higher in isolated forest patches. Conclusions Our findings indicate that, at the landscape scale, variation in tree cover coincides with suitable microclimate and high Culex pipiens and bird abundance. Overall, these factors can help understand the non-random spatial distribution of mosquito-borne disease outbreaks. Graphical Abstract
Local environmental factors drive distributions of ecologically-contrasting mosquito species (Diptera: Culicidae) Roel M. Wouters, Wouter Beukema, Maarten Schrama, Koos Biesmeijer, Marieta A. H. Braks, Pepijn Helleman, Francis Schaffner, Joey van Slobbe, Arjan Stroo, Jordy G. van der Beek Scientific Reports, 2024 Mosquitoes are important vectors of disease pathogens and multiple species are undergoing geographical shifts due to global changes. As such, there is a growing need for accurate distribution predictions. Ecological niche modelling (ENM) is an effective tool to assess mosquito distribution patterns and link these to underlying environmental preferences. Typically, macroclimatic variables are used as primary predictors of mosquito distributions. However, they likely undervalue local conditions and intraspecific variation in environmental preferences. This is problematic, as mosquito control takes place at the local scale. Utilising high-resolution (10 × 10 m) Maxent ENMs on the island of Bonaire as model system, we explore the influence of local environmental variables on mosquito distributions. Our results show a distinct set of environmental variables shape distribution patterns across ecologically-distinct species, with urban variables strongly associated with introduced species like Aedesaegypti and Culexquinquefasciatus, while native species show habitat preferences for either mangroves, forests, or ephemeral water habitats. These findings underscore the importance of distinct local environmental factors in shaping distributions of different mosquitoes, even on a small island. As such, these findings warrant further studies aimed at predicting high-resolution mosquito distributions, opening avenues for preventative management of vector-borne disease risks amidst ongoing global change and ecosystem degradation.
Interactive effects of climate, land use and soil type on Culex pipiens/torrentium abundance Louie Krol, Rody Blom, Martha Dellar, Jordy G. van der Beek, Arjan C.J. Stroo, Peter M. van Bodegom, Gertjan W. Geerling, Constantianus J.M. Koenraadt, Maarten Schrama One Health, 2023 The incidence and risk of mosquito-borne disease outbreaks in Northwestern Europe has increased over the last few decades. Understanding the underlying environmental drivers of mosquito population dynamics helps to adequately assess mosquito-borne disease risk. While previous studies have focussed primarily on the effects of climatic conditions (i.e., temperature and precipitation) and/or local environmental conditions individually, it remains unclear how climatic conditions interact with local environmental factors such as land use and soil type, and how these subsequently affect mosquito abundance. Here, we set out to study the interactive effects of land use, soil type and climatic conditions on the abundance of Culex pipiens/torrentium, highly abundant vectors of West Nile virus and Usutu virus. Mosquitoes were sampled at 14 sites throughout the Netherlands. At each site, weekly mosquito collections were carried out between early July and mid-October 2020 and 2021. To assess the effect of the aforementioned environmental factors, we performed a series of generalized linear mixed models and non-parametric statistical tests. Our results show that mosquito abundance and species richness consistently differ among land use- and soil types, with peri-urban areas with peat/clay soils having the highest Cx. pipiens/torrentium abundance and sandy rural areas having the lowest. Furthermore, we observed differences in precipitation-mediated effects on Cx. pipiens/torrentium abundance between (peri-)urban and other land uses and soil types. In contrast, effects of temperature on Cx. pipiens/torrentium abundance remain similar between different land use and soil types. Our study highlights the importance of both land use and soil type in conjunction with climatic conditions for understanding mosquito abundances. Particularly in relation to rainfall events, land use and soil type has a marked effect on mosquito abundance. These findings underscore the importance of local environmental parameters for studies focusing on predicting or mitigating disease risk.
Taxonomy, ecology and distribution of the mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) of the Dutch Leeward Islands, with a key to the adults and fourth instar larvae Jordy G. van der Beek, Klaas-Douwe B. Dijkstra, Berry B. van der Hoorn, Sam P. Boerlijst, Loes Busscher, Maud L. Kok, Marieta A.H. Braks, Francis Schaffner, Gerald J. Davelaar, Maria Henry, Koen Hulshof, Teresa E. Leslie, Maarten Schrama Contributions to Zoology, 2020 Assessing mosquito biodiversity is important for disease surveillance and ecosystem health assessments. Such studies are particularly needed in regions like the Caribbean, which have experienced a series of recent mosquito borne disease outbreaks but received little attention regarding its invertebrate biodiversity. Here, we report on results from a mosquito survey on the Dutch Leeward Islands (Sint Eustatius, Sint Maarten and Saba), carried out in April and October 2018, which is the first integrative survey since those conducted by Van der Kuyp (1947) and Wagenaar Hummelinck (1949). Moreover, we present a novel key for adults and fourth instar larvae of the mosquitoes of the Dutch Leeward Islands. Overall, eleven species were recorded, eight on Sint Maarten, five on Saba and two on Sint Eustatius. Two new potential disease vectors, Culex nigripalpus and Aedes taeniorhynchus, were recorded on Sint Maarten. One previously recorded species, Cx. habilitator, was not retrieved from any of the islands, which is further discussed in the paper. Species indicative of natural forest which previously occurred on all three islands were absent from Sint Eustatius and Sint Maarten but still present on Saba. In contrast, species indicative of human inhabitation, Ae. aegypti and Cx. quinquefasciatus, were highly abundant on Sint Maarten and Sint Eustatius and present in low numbers on Saba. Overall, the results of this study emphasize the importance of biodiversity surveys and indicate that frequent mosquito inventories may contribute to a better understanding of mosquito community composition and distribution of potential vector species.
Field evaluation of DNA based biodiversity monitoring of Caribbean mosquitoes Sam P. Boerlijst, Krijn B. Trimbos, Jordy G. Van der Beek, Klaas Douwe B. Dijkstra, Berry B. Van der Hoorn, Maarten Schrama Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 2019 Mosquito borne diseases pose a threat to human health worldwide. Disease risk is primarily determined by presence and abundance of vector species. A better understanding of mosquito diversity and abundance can direct improved vector control, but this requires a combination of monitoring techniques that yield both rapid and reliable information. Particularly improved larval detection is pivotal to move towards more targeted management with less environmental impact. Current detection methods rely strongly on manual labour and taxonomic expertise, which greatly limits the extent to which these methodologies can be employed. As such, insight in the efficiency of novel, high-throughput vs. traditional sampling techniques is required. We compared the effectiveness of a recently developed environmental DNA (eDNA) approach on water and sediment samples with other commonly used sampling techniques (‘dipping’ for larvae and adult trapping) in a field study on three Caribbean islands. All sampling methods were employed across a range of ecologically contrasting sites. Species identification was performed both morphologically and molecularly using an in-house developed reference database supplemented with sequences from BOLD and GenBank. Our analysis of water samples from 39 sites shows that eDNA sampling can be more reliable than dipping, yields a higher within-sample richness and produces a subset of the adult community in all sampled water types. Furthermore, for both adults and larvae, our identifications showed complete overlap between morphological and molecular approaches in 133 out of 134 samples. Overall, results from this study provide evidence that both our eDNA-based detection of larvae and our DNA-based identification of larvae and adults present methods that are, although more expensive, as reliable, and for some species even more reliable than the currently used methods. Additionally, our results highlight that a DNA approach can be used to identify larvae of early developmental stages, which generally lack important morphological characteristics. As such it allows for development of efficient disease control strategies, verification of management effectiveness and monitoring of population dynamics.
Setting an old record straight: does Anopheles melanoon really occur in the Netherlands? (Diptera: Culicidae) JG van der Beek Entomologische Berichten 86 (1), 12-15 , 2026 2026
The differentiating power of mitochondrial genes: complete mitogenome sequences of 27 mosquito species present in Europe JG van der Beek, A Ibáñez-Justicia, JC Biesmeijer, E Lizarazo-Forero, ... Journal of the European Mosquito Control Association 1 (aop), 1-19 , 2025 2025
The ecological niche and population history shape mosquito population genetics on a group of three Caribbean islands P Helleman, M Schrama, KB Trimbos, MAH Braks, F Schaffner, A Stroo, ... Parasites & Vectors 18, 167 , 2025 2025 Citations: 3
Flies recorded on Bonaire in 2022-2023 (Diptera) JT Smit, JG van der Beek, MC d’Oliveira, E de Bree, JJ Wieringa, ... Nederlandse Faunistische Mededelingen 64, 259-300 , 2025 2025 Citations: 3
Nederland, muggenparadijs MJJ Schrama, JG van der Beek 2024
Local environmental factors drive distributions of ecologically-contrasting mosquito species (Diptera: Culicidae) RM Wouters, W Beukema, M Schrama, K Biesmeijer, MAH Braks, ... Scientific Reports 14 (1), 19315 , 2024 2024 Citations: 15
First record of a phlebotomine sand fly (Diptera: Psychodidae) on the Dutch Caribbean island of Curaçao JG Van der Beek, MJJ Schrama, P Ciliberti, PJJ Helleman, RM Wouters, ... Deinsea 22, 23-30 , 2024 2024 Citations: 3
Landscape level associations between birds, mosquitoes and microclimates: possible consequences for disease transmission? L Krol, L Remmerswaal, M Groen, JG van der Beek, RS Sikkema, ... Parasites & Vectors 17 (1), 156 , 2024 2024 Citations: 14
Een eerste overzicht van de steekmuggen van Rotterdam JG van der Beek, M Schrama Straatgras 35 (2), 52-58 , 2023 2023
Interactive effects of climate, land use and soil type on Culex pipiens/torrentium abundance L Krol, R Blom, M Dellar, JG van der Beek, ACJ Stroo, PM van Bodegom, ... One Health 17, 100589 , 2023 2023 Citations: 22
Slechts één geelsnavelduiker in de collectie van Natuurhistorisch Museum Rotterdam EJO Kompanje, G Bakker, JG van der Beek Straatgras 34 (1), 6-9 , 2022 2022
Detection of West Nile virus in a common whitethroat (Curruca communis) and Culex mosquitoes in the Netherlands, 2020 RS Sikkema, M Schrama, T Van Den Berg, J Morren, E Munger, L Krol, ... Eurosurveillance 25 (40), 2001704 , 2020 2020 Citations: 90
Taxonomy, ecology and distribution of the mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) of the Dutch Leeward Islands, with a key to the adults and fourth instar larvae JG van der Beek, KDB Dijkstra, BB van der Hoorn, SP Boerlijst, ... Contributions to Zoology 89 (4), 373-392 , 2020 2020 Citations: 10
Field evaluation of DNA based biodiversity monitoring of Caribbean mosquitoes SP Boerlijst, KB Trimbos, JG Van der Beek, KDB Dijkstra, ... Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 7, 240 , 2019 2019 Citations: 27
Effects of broadband sound exposure on the interaction between foraging crab and shrimp–A field study J Hubert, J Campbell, JG van der Beek, MF den Haan, R Verhave, ... Environmental Pollution 243, 1923-1929 , 2018 2018 Citations: 52
Report on the 4th European workshop on scaphopod molluscs (Cismar, May 1st – May 7th 2015) JG van der Beek, B Sahlmann, AF de Jong, V Wiese Spirula 408, 55-56 , 2016 2016
A new scaphopod, Dentalium humboldti n. sp., from the Concepción Methane Seep off Chile (Mollusca: Scaphopoda) B Sahlmann, J van der Beek Schriften zur Malakozoologie aus dem Haus der Natur – Cismar 29, 41-48 , 2016 2016 Citations: 3
A shell of Antalis valdiviae (Plate 1908) – an ultrarare scaphopd from the deep North Atlantic (Mollusca: Scaphopoda) J van der Beek, B Sahlmann Schriften zur Malakozoologie aus dem Haus der Natur – Cismar 29, 49-52 , 2016 2016
Fissidentalium (Compressidentalium) pseudohungerfordi n. sp., a well known undescribed scaphopod in the group of Fissidentalium (Compressidentalium) hungerfordi (Pilsbry& Sharp … B Sahlmann, J van der Beek, V Wiese Schriften zur Malakozoologie aus dem Haus der Natur – Cismar 29, 19-32 , 2016 2016 Citations: 1
Even voorstellen: Jordy van der Beek J van der Beek Spirula 404, 18-18 , 2015 2015
MOST CITED SCHOLAR PUBLICATIONS
Detection of West Nile virus in a common whitethroat (Curruca communis) and Culex mosquitoes in the Netherlands, 2020 RS Sikkema, M Schrama, T Van Den Berg, J Morren, E Munger, L Krol, ... Eurosurveillance 25 (40), 2001704 , 2020 2020 Citations: 90
Effects of broadband sound exposure on the interaction between foraging crab and shrimp–A field study J Hubert, J Campbell, JG van der Beek, MF den Haan, R Verhave, ... Environmental Pollution 243, 1923-1929 , 2018 2018 Citations: 52
Field evaluation of DNA based biodiversity monitoring of Caribbean mosquitoes SP Boerlijst, KB Trimbos, JG Van der Beek, KDB Dijkstra, ... Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 7, 240 , 2019 2019 Citations: 27
Interactive effects of climate, land use and soil type on Culex pipiens/torrentium abundance L Krol, R Blom, M Dellar, JG van der Beek, ACJ Stroo, PM van Bodegom, ... One Health 17, 100589 , 2023 2023 Citations: 22
Local environmental factors drive distributions of ecologically-contrasting mosquito species (Diptera: Culicidae) RM Wouters, W Beukema, M Schrama, K Biesmeijer, MAH Braks, ... Scientific Reports 14 (1), 19315 , 2024 2024 Citations: 15
Landscape level associations between birds, mosquitoes and microclimates: possible consequences for disease transmission? L Krol, L Remmerswaal, M Groen, JG van der Beek, RS Sikkema, ... Parasites & Vectors 17 (1), 156 , 2024 2024 Citations: 14
Taxonomy, ecology and distribution of the mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) of the Dutch Leeward Islands, with a key to the adults and fourth instar larvae JG van der Beek, KDB Dijkstra, BB van der Hoorn, SP Boerlijst, ... Contributions to Zoology 89 (4), 373-392 , 2020 2020 Citations: 10
The ecological niche and population history shape mosquito population genetics on a group of three Caribbean islands P Helleman, M Schrama, KB Trimbos, MAH Braks, F Schaffner, A Stroo, ... Parasites & Vectors 18, 167 , 2025 2025 Citations: 3
Flies recorded on Bonaire in 2022-2023 (Diptera) JT Smit, JG van der Beek, MC d’Oliveira, E de Bree, JJ Wieringa, ... Nederlandse Faunistische Mededelingen 64, 259-300 , 2025 2025 Citations: 3
First record of a phlebotomine sand fly (Diptera: Psychodidae) on the Dutch Caribbean island of Curaçao JG Van der Beek, MJJ Schrama, P Ciliberti, PJJ Helleman, RM Wouters, ... Deinsea 22, 23-30 , 2024 2024 Citations: 3
A new scaphopod, Dentalium humboldti n. sp., from the Concepción Methane Seep off Chile (Mollusca: Scaphopoda) B Sahlmann, J van der Beek Schriften zur Malakozoologie aus dem Haus der Natur – Cismar 29, 41-48 , 2016 2016 Citations: 3
Report on the 2nd European workshop on scaphopod molluscs (Cismar, April 28th – May 2nd 2014) JG van der Beek Spirula 399, 120 , 2014 2014 Citations: 2
Fissidentalium (Compressidentalium) pseudohungerfordi n. sp., a well known undescribed scaphopod in the group of Fissidentalium (Compressidentalium) hungerfordi (Pilsbry& Sharp … B Sahlmann, J van der Beek, V Wiese Schriften zur Malakozoologie aus dem Haus der Natur – Cismar 29, 19-32 , 2016 2016 Citations: 1
Setting an old record straight: does Anopheles melanoon really occur in the Netherlands? (Diptera: Culicidae) JG van der Beek Entomologische Berichten 86 (1), 12-15 , 2026 2026
The differentiating power of mitochondrial genes: complete mitogenome sequences of 27 mosquito species present in Europe JG van der Beek, A Ibáñez-Justicia, JC Biesmeijer, E Lizarazo-Forero, ... Journal of the European Mosquito Control Association 1 (aop), 1-19 , 2025 2025
Nederland, muggenparadijs MJJ Schrama, JG van der Beek 2024
Een eerste overzicht van de steekmuggen van Rotterdam JG van der Beek, M Schrama Straatgras 35 (2), 52-58 , 2023 2023
Slechts één geelsnavelduiker in de collectie van Natuurhistorisch Museum Rotterdam EJO Kompanje, G Bakker, JG van der Beek Straatgras 34 (1), 6-9 , 2022 2022
Report on the 4th European workshop on scaphopod molluscs (Cismar, May 1st – May 7th 2015) JG van der Beek, B Sahlmann, AF de Jong, V Wiese Spirula 408, 55-56 , 2016 2016
A shell of Antalis valdiviae (Plate 1908) – an ultrarare scaphopd from the deep North Atlantic (Mollusca: Scaphopoda) J van der Beek, B Sahlmann Schriften zur Malakozoologie aus dem Haus der Natur – Cismar 29, 49-52 , 2016 2016
