The effect of spatial structures on analogical problem solving Amin Hashemi, Elisabet Tubau Memory and Cognition, 2025 A critical step in analogical problem solving is recognizing structural similarities between the source (a known problem and its solution) and the target (the current problem). This task becomes particularly challenging when the source and target come from semantically distant domains. Previous research has suggested that global spatial configurations play an important role in detecting structural similarities. However, this effect has only been demonstrated in visual analogies. The present study aimed to investigate whether the salience of spatial structures is also relevant in verbal analogical problem solving. To this end, we manipulated the explicitness of the spatial relations described in the source narrative, as well as the method used for source processing (written summary, schematic drawing, or analogy creation). The results indicated that both the inclusion of explicit spatial features and schematic drawing enhanced analogical transfer. Schematic drawing was particularly effective when the narrative did not make the spatial properties explicit, suggesting that it promoted the inference of spatial relations. However, these effects only emerged when participants were informed about the relevance of the source. In contrast, analogy creation, which promotes the abstraction of causal relations leading to the solution, facilitated spontaneous analogical transfer. This effect was more pronounced when the source narrative included explicit spatial features. Therefore, while salient global spatial relations enhance the recognition of structural similarities between source and target analogs, understanding the causal relations underlying the solution supports successful analogical problem solving.
Global relations versus object relations in visual analogies Amin Hashemi, Elisabet Tubau Thinking and Reasoning, 2025 Based on the distinction between global and local levels of visual perception, here we studied different levels of reasoning in visual analogies. Specifically, we created problems that could be solved by inferring relations either between the global shapes (global path) or the underlying objects (object path). The problems varied in the saliency of the global shape, in the colour and familiarity of the objects, and in the presentation of the visual problem (simultaneous or sequential). The results of three studies showed that the global path was used more frequently than the object path, particularly for images with salient global shapes such as objects placed in a circle. However, neither colour nor object familiarity affected the tendency to use the object path. Importantly, the tendency to use the global path correlated with analogical problem-solving in other visual and verbal tasks. Overall, these findings suggest that the global precedence observed in image perception also applies to visual analogical reasoning. Furthermore, the tendency to use the global path can be regarded as an informative measure of individual differences.
Previous beliefs affect Bayesian reasoning in conditions fostering gist comprehension Elisabet Tubau, Àngels Colomé, Javier Rodríguez-Ferreiro Memory and Cognition, 2023 It has been shown that Bayesian reasoning is affected by the believability of the data, but it is unknown which conditions could potentiate or reduce such belief effect. Here, we tested the hypothesis that the belief effect would mainly be observed in conditions fostering a gist comprehension of the data. Accordingly, we expected to observe a significant belief effect in iconic rather than in textual presentations and, in general, when nonnumerical estimates were requested. The results of three studies showed more accurate Bayesian estimates, either expressed numerically or nonnumerically, for icons than for text descriptions of natural frequencies. Moreover, in line with our expectations, nonnumerical estimates were, in general, more accurate for believable rather than for unbelievable scenarios. In contrast, the belief effect on the accuracy of the numerical estimates depended on the format and on the complexity of the calculation. The present findings also showed that single-event posterior probability estimates based on described frequencies were more accurate when expressed nonnumerically rather than numerically, opening new avenues for the development of interventions to improve Bayesian reasoning.
Classification of MCI patients using vergence eye movements and pupil responses obtained during a visual oddball test Amin Hashemi, Oleksii Leonovych, Elizabeth Carolina Jiménez, Alba Sierra-Marcos, August Romeo, Patricia Bustos Valenzuala, Maria Solé Puig, Joan Lopez Moliner, Elisabet Tubau, Hans Supèr Aging and Health Research, 2023 In the current study, we tested the hypothesis that Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) patients can be identified based on the analysis of vergence eye movements and pupil responses. We recorded vergence and pupil responses in MCI patients (N = 22) and cognitive healthy elderly (N = 18) while performing a visual oddball task. Based on selected features, a classifier model computed probability scores predicting MCI. MCI patients were re-evaluated in a follow-up visit of 12–18 months. For validating the model, patients with Alzheimer's Disease (AD) (N = 9) were tested. High classification accuracy was obtained (AUC: 0.93). In addition, the probability scores showed significant predictive power of MCI conversion into possible AD. Our results show that MCI can be detected by assessing vergence and pupil responses during a simple and short task. Therefore, these responses could potentially be used as a marker tool for MCI diagnosis and to identify the risk of developing Alzheimer's Disease.
Why can it be so hard to solve Bayesian problems? Moving from number comprehension to relational reasoning demands Elisabet Tubau Thinking and Reasoning, 2022 Over the last decades, understanding the sources of the difficulty of Bayesian problem solving has been an important research goal, with the effects of numerical format and individual numeracy being widely studied. However, the focus on the comprehension of probability numbers has overshadowed the relational reasoning demand of the Bayesian task. This is particularly the case when the statistical data are verbally described since the requested quantitative relation (posterior ratio) is misaligned with the presented ones (prior and likelihood ratios). In this regard, here I develop the proposal that research on Bayesian reasoning might improve by considering the notational alignment framework of mathematical problem-solving. Specifically, this framework can help to understand the sources of the main difficulties underlying Bayesian inferences based on verbal descriptions. In essence, the present proposal supports the general claim in math education regarding the need to foster relational comprehension to avoid misleading alignments and improve problem solving.
From reading numbers to seeing ratios: a benefit of icons for risk comprehension Elisabet Tubau, Javier Rodríguez-Ferreiro, Itxaso Barberia, Àngels Colomé Psychological Research, 2019 Promoting a better understanding of statistical data is becoming increasingly important for improving risk comprehension and decision-making. In this regard, previous studies on Bayesian problem solving have shown that iconic representations help infer frequencies in sets and subsets. Nevertheless, the mechanisms by which icons enhance performance remain unclear. Here, we tested the hypothesis that the benefit offered by icon arrays lies in a better alignment between presented and requested relationships, which should facilitate the comprehension of the requested ratio beyond the represented quantities. To this end, we analyzed individual risk estimates based on data presented either in standard verbal presentations (percentages and natural frequency formats) or as icon arrays. Compared to the other formats, icons led to estimates that were more accurate, and importantly, promoted the use of equivalent expressions for the requested probability. Furthermore, whereas the accuracy of the estimates based on verbal formats depended on their alignment with the text, all the estimates based on icons were equally accurate. Therefore, these results support the proposal that icons enhance the comprehension of the ratio and its mapping onto the requested probability and point to relational misalignment as potential interference for text-based Bayesian reasoning. The present findings also argue against an intrinsic difficulty with understanding single-event probabilities.
An object-tracking model that combines position and speed explains spatial and temporal responses in a timing task David Aguilar-Lleyda, Elisabet Tubau, Joan López-Moliner Journal of Vision, 2018 Many tasks require synchronizing our actions with particular moments along the path of moving targets. However, it is controversial whether we base these actions on spatial or temporal information, and whether using either can enhance our performance. We addressed these questions with a coincidence timing task. A target varying in speed and motion duration approached a goal. Participants stopped the target and were rewarded according to its proximity to the goal. Results showed larger reward for responses temporally (rather than spatially) equidistant to the goal across speeds, and this pattern was promoted by longer motion durations. We used a Kalman filter to simulate time and space-based responses, where modeled speed uncertainty depended on motion duration and positional uncertainty on target speed. The comparison between simulated and observed responses revealed that a single position-tracking mechanism could account for both spatial and temporal patterns, providing a unified computational explanation.
Too worried to judge: On the role of perceived severity in medical decision-making Àngels Colomé, Javier Rodríguez-Ferreiro, Elisabet Tubau Frontiers in Psychology, 2018 Ideally, decisions regarding one’s health should be made after assessing the objective probabilities of relevant outcomes. Nevertheless, previous beliefs and emotional reactions also have a role in decision-making. Furthermore, the comprehension of probabilities is commonly affected by the presentation format, and by numeracy. This study aimed to assess the extent to which the influence of these factors might vary between different medical conditions. A sample of university students were presented with two health scenarios containing statistical information on the prevalence of breast cancer and hypertension either through icon arrays (N = 71) or natural frequencies (N = 72). They also received information regarding a preventive measure (mammogram/low-sodium diet) and the likelihood of a positive mammogram or a rich-sodium diet either when suffering or not suffering from the disease. Before seeing the data, participants rated the severity of the disease and the inconvenience of the preventive measure. After reading the health scenario, participants had to rate its difficulty, and how worrisome it was. They had also to rate the prior probability of suffering from this medical condition, and the posterior probability of it, provided a positive mammogram or a rich-sodium diet. Finally, they rated the extent to which they would recommend the preventive measures. All the rates used the same 1 (little)-8 (a great deal) scale. Participants’ numeracy was also assessed. The scenarios differed significantly in perceived severity and worry, with the cancer scenario obtaining higher scores. Importantly, regression analyses showed that the recommendations in the two health scenarios depended on different variables. A model taking into consideration severity and worry rates best explained decisions in the cancer scenario; in contrast, in the hypertension scenario the model that best explained the recommendations comprised both the posterior probability estimate and the severity rate. Neither numeracy nor presentation format affected recommendation but both affected difficulty, worrying and probability rates. We conclude that previous perceptions of the severity of a health condition modulate the use of probabilistic information for decision-making. The roles of presentation format and numeracy in enabling patients to understand statistical information are also discussed.
A short educational intervention diminishes causal illusions and specific paranormal beliefs in undergraduates Itxaso Barberia, Elisabet Tubau, Helena Matute, Javier Rodríguez-Ferreiro Plos One, 2018 Cognitive biases such as causal illusions have been related to paranormal and pseudoscientific beliefs and, thus, pose a real threat to the development of adequate critical thinking abilities. We aimed to reduce causal illusions in undergraduates by means of an educational intervention combining training-in-bias and training-in-rules techniques. First, participants directly experienced situations that tend to induce the Barnum effect and the confirmation bias. Thereafter, these effects were explained and examples of their influence over everyday life were provided. Compared to a control group, participants who received the intervention showed diminished causal illusions in a contingency learning task and a decrease in the precognition dimension of a paranormal belief scale. Overall, results suggest that evidence-based educational interventions like the one presented here could be used to significantly improve critical thinking skills in our students.
Structural mapping in statistical word problems: A relational reasoning approach to Bayesian inference Eric D. Johnson, Elisabet Tubau Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 2017 Presenting natural frequencies facilitates Bayesian inferences relative to using percentages. Nevertheless, many people, including highly educated and skilled reasoners, still fail to provide Bayesian responses to these computationally simple problems. We show that the complexity of relational reasoning (e.g., the structural mapping between the presented and requested relations) can help explain the remaining difficulties. With a non-Bayesian inference that required identical arithmetic but afforded a more direct structural mapping, performance was universally high. Furthermore, reducing the relational demands of the task through questions that directed reasoners to use the presented statistics, as compared with questions that prompted the representation of a second, similar sample, also significantly improved reasoning. Distinct error patterns were also observed between these presented- and similar-sample scenarios, which suggested differences in relational-reasoning strategies. On the other hand, while higher numeracy was associated with better Bayesian reasoning, higher-numerate reasoners were not immune to the relational complexity of the task. Together, these findings validate the relational-reasoning view of Bayesian problem solving and highlight the importance of considering not only the presented task structure, but also the complexity of the structural alignment between the presented and requested relations.
The unbearable burden of executive load on cognitive reflection: A validation of dual process theory Proceedings of the 36th Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society Cogsci 2014, 2014
The effect of spatial structures on analogical problem solving A Hashemi, E Tubau Memory & Cognition, 1-12 , 2025 2025 Citations: 1
Global relations versus object relations in visual analogies A Hashemi, E Tubau Thinking & Reasoning 31 (1), 109-135 , 2025 2025 Citations: 2
Previous beliefs affect Bayesian reasoning in conditions fostering gist comprehension E Tubau, À Colomé, J Rodriguez-Ferreiro Memory & Cognition 51 (8), 1819-1835 , 2023 2023 Citations: 2
Previous beliefs affect Bayesian reasoning in conditions fostering gist comprehension E Tubau Sala, À Colomé, J Rodríguez-Ferreiro The Psychonomic Society , 2023 2023
Classification of MCI patients using vergence eye movements and pupil responses obtained during a visual oddball test A Hashemi, O Leonovych, EC Jiménez, A Sierra-Marcos, A Romeo, ... Aging and Health Research 3 (1), 100121 , 2023 2023 Citations: 7
Why can it be so hard to solve Bayesian problems? Moving from number comprehension to relational reasoning demands E Tubau Thinking & Reasoning 28 (4), 605-624 , 2022 2022 Citations: 9
From reading numbers to seeing ratios: a benefit of icons for risk comprehension E Tubau, J Rodríguez-Ferreiro, I Barberia, À Colomé Psychological Research 83 (8), 1808-1816 , 2019 2019 Citations: 37
A Single Response Mechanism Accounts for Spatial and Temporal Responses in a Timing Task J Lopez-Moliner, E Tubau, D Aguilar-Lleyda PERCEPTION 48, 172-172 , 2019 2019
From reading numbers to seeing ratios: a benefit of icons for risk comprehension E Tubau Sala, J Rodríguez-Ferreiro, I Barberia, À Colomé Psychological Research-Psychologische Forschung, 2019, vol. 83, num. 8, p … , 2019 2019
An object-tracking model that combines position and speed explains spatial and temporal responses in a timing task D Aguilar-Lleyda, E Tubau, J Lopez-Moliner Journal of Vision 18 (12), 12-12 , 2018 2018 Citations: 16
Too worried to judge: on the role of perceived severity in medical decision-making À Colomé, J Rodríguez-Ferreiro, E Tubau Frontiers in Psychology 9, 1906 , 2018 2018 Citations: 15
A short educational intervention diminishes causal illusions and specific paranormal beliefs in undergraduates I Barberia, E Tubau, H Matute, J Rodríguez-Ferreiro PLoS One 13 (1), e0191907 , 2018 2018 Citations: 52
An object-tracking model that combines position and speed D Aguilar-Lleyda, E Tubau, J López-Moliner 2018
Temporal-based responses enhance gain in sensorimotor decision-making D Aguilar-Lleyda, E Tubau, J López-Moliner Journal of Vision 17 (10), 1269-1269 , 2017 2017
Post-error response inhibition in high math-anxious individuals: Evidence from a multi-digit addition task MI Núñez-Peña, E Tubau, M Suarez-Pellicioni Acta psychologica 177, 17-22 , 2017 2017 Citations: 11
Structural mapping in statistical word problems: A relational reasoning approach to Bayesian inference ED Johnson, E Tubau Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 24 (3), 964-971 , 2017 2017 Citations: 12
Differential gains depending on relying more on time or space: evidence from a timing task D Aguilar-Lleyda, E Tubau, J Lopez-Moliner PERCEPTION 45, 227-228 , 2016 2016
The Doubting System 1: Evidence for automatic substitution sensitivity ED Johnson, E Tubau, W De Neys Acta psychologica 164, 56-64 , 2016 2016 Citations: 126
Expected utility maximization in motor decision-making: differences in representing probability through size vs. through distance D Aguilar-Lleyda, E Tubau, J López-Moliner Journal of Vision 15 (12), 1146-1146 , 2015 2015
Comprehension and computation in Bayesian problem solving ED Johnson, E Tubau Frontiers in psychology 6, 938 , 2015 2015 Citations: 75
MOST CITED SCHOLAR PUBLICATIONS
The Doubting System 1: Evidence for automatic substitution sensitivity ED Johnson, E Tubau, W De Neys Acta psychologica 164, 56-64 , 2016 2016 Citations: 126
Modes of executive control in sequence learning: from stimulus-based to plan-based control. E Tubau, B Hommel, J López-Moliner Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 136 (1), 43 , 2007 2007 Citations: 87
Comprehension and computation in Bayesian problem solving ED Johnson, E Tubau Frontiers in psychology 6, 938 , 2015 2015 Citations: 75
Individual differences in arithmetic skill reflected in event-related brain potentials MI Núñez-Peña, M Gracia-Bafalluy, E Tubau International Journal of Psychophysiology 80 (2), 143-149 , 2011 2011 Citations: 61
Overcoming illusory inferences in a probabilistic counterintuitive problem: The role of explicit representations E Tubau, D Alonso Memory & cognition 31 (4), 596-607 , 2003 2003 Citations: 58
Words, numbers, & numeracy: Diminishing individual differences in Bayesian reasoning ED Johnson, E Tubau Learning and Individual Differences 28, 34-40 , 2013 2013 Citations: 54
A short educational intervention diminishes causal illusions and specific paranormal beliefs in undergraduates I Barberia, E Tubau, H Matute, J Rodríguez-Ferreiro PLoS One 13 (1), e0191907 , 2018 2018 Citations: 52
Enhancing probabilistic reasoning: The role of causal graphs, statistical format and numerical skills E Tubau Learning and Individual Differences 18 (2), 187-196 , 2008 2008 Citations: 38
From reading numbers to seeing ratios: a benefit of icons for risk comprehension E Tubau, J Rodríguez-Ferreiro, I Barberia, À Colomé Psychological Research 83 (8), 1808-1816 , 2019 2019 Citations: 37
Spatial interference and response control in sequence learning: the role of explicit knowledge E Tubau, J López-Moliner Psychological Research 68 (1), 55-63 , 2004 2004 Citations: 34
Reasoning and choice in the Monty Hall Dilemma (MHD): implications for improving Bayesian reasoning E Tubau, D Aguilar-Lleyda, ED Johnson Frontiers in psychology 6, 353 , 2015 2015 Citations: 33
Inferencias bayesianas: una revisión teórica D Alonso, E Tubau Anuario de Psicología 33 (1), 25-47 , 2002 2002 Citations: 30
The unbearable burden of executive load on cognitive reflection: A validation of dual process theory ED Johnson, E Tubau, W De Neys Proceedings of the annual meeting of the Cognitive Science Society 36 (36) , 2014 2014 Citations: 28
Utilidad de distintas ayudas en la resolución de un problema de insight y su relación con las estrategias metacognitivas RM Fernández, E Tubau, L Guilera, S Rabanaque, E Sánchez anales de psicología 24 (1), 16-24 , 2008 2008 Citations: 26
Measuring both systems of reasoning: a study of the predictive capacity of a new version of the Rational-Experiential Inventory E Sánchez, P Fernández-Berrocal, D Alonso, E Tubau European journal of education and psychology 5 (2), 121-132 , 2012 2012 Citations: 22
An object-tracking model that combines position and speed explains spatial and temporal responses in a timing task D Aguilar-Lleyda, E Tubau, J Lopez-Moliner Journal of Vision 18 (12), 12-12 , 2018 2018 Citations: 16
Too worried to judge: on the role of perceived severity in medical decision-making À Colomé, J Rodríguez-Ferreiro, E Tubau Frontiers in Psychology 9, 1906 , 2018 2018 Citations: 15
Individual differences in sequence learning and auditory pattern sensitivity as revealed with evoked potentials E Tubau, C Escera, V Carral, MJ Corral European Journal of Neuroscience 26 (1), 261-264 , 2007 2007 Citations: 15
Structural mapping in statistical word problems: A relational reasoning approach to Bayesian inference ED Johnson, E Tubau Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 24 (3), 964-971 , 2017 2017 Citations: 12
Knowing what to respond in the future does not cancel the influence of past events E Tubau, J López-Moliner PLoS One 4 (5), e5607 , 2009 2009 Citations: 12
